The dark history of genetics - with Adam Rutherford (2023 HBS Haldane Lecture)

The Royal Institution・2 minutes read

The speaker discusses the importance of reevaluating historical figures in the context of contemporary values, particularly focusing on figures like Julian Huxley and Francis Galton. He explores the controversial history of eugenics and the impact of individuals like Karl Pearson and Ronald Fisher, shedding light on their scientific contributions and problematic views.

Insights

The speaker highlights the importance of reassessing historical figures in light of contemporary values, impacting how genetics is taught today.
The discussion delves into the historical context of race creation by Carl Linnaeus, shaping social constructs based on skin color and hair texture.
Fisher's controversial stance against the link between smoking and cancer, influenced by personal biases, was exploited by the tobacco industry, undermining scientific consensus and public health efforts.

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What is eugenics?
Eugenics is a belief system advocating for improving the genetic quality of the human population through selective breeding or sterilization.

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Summary

00:00

Rethinking Historical Figures in Genetics Education

The speaker humorously acknowledges the serious nature of his lecture on genocides to an audience expecting entertainment.
He expresses gratitude for receiving an award, crediting Professor Aoife McLysaght for the nomination.
The speaker shares instances of his rebellious streak, including controversial remarks during prestigious lectures on eugenics and Voltaire.
He discusses Julian Huxley's career, highlighting his contributions to science and controversial views on eugenics.
The speaker emphasizes the importance of reassessing historical figures in the context of contemporary values and the impact on teaching genetics.
He addresses common arguments against reevaluating historical figures, such as rewriting history and erasing history.
The speaker challenges the notion of judging historical figures by today's standards and the idea of being a "man of your time."
He stresses the significance of understanding the history of genetics in shaping current scientific practices and conversations.
The speaker delves into the historical context of the invention of race by Carl Linnaeus and its hierarchical classification system.
He discusses the persistence of socially-constructed taxonomy based on skin color and hair texture, influenced by Linnaeus's classifications.

14:31

Scientists' Historical Misunderstandings and Academic Influences

Historians criticize scientists for not understanding the academic discipline of history, which predates scientific disciplines.
Scientists often rely on Wikipedia or biographies to understand history, lacking in-depth historical analysis.
James Watson's book "The Double Helix" is a mix of fact and fiction, with ongoing analysis revealing inaccuracies.
Watson's portrayal of Rosalind Franklin in his book has faced backlash for being misogynistic, leading to inaccurate narratives about her.
Matthew Cobb and Nathaniel Comfort published a paper in "Nature" correcting the history of Watson and Crick's thoughts on Franklin.
Scientists struggle with history due to a reluctance to abandon the Great Man Theory, which attributes historical events to exceptional individuals.
Francis Galton's work on eugenics, based on the hereditary genius theory, influenced the belief in biological greatness in history.
Galton's personal views, including white supremacy and racism, influenced his scientific work on eugenics.
Karl Pearson, the first Galton Professor, made significant contributions to statistics and science, influencing Einstein's work on special relativity.
Pearson's diverse academic background and influential book "The Grammar of Science" shaped modern scientific understanding.

28:31

Controversial Legacy of Statistician Ronald Fisher

Karl Pearson, a significant figure in the field of statistics, was also a racist and supporter of eugenics, as evidenced by his statements and actions.
Pearson explicitly linked his statistical techniques to promoting eugenics in a lecture, showcasing his ideological alignment.
Ronald Aylmer Fisher, Pearson's successor, is credited with inventing many statistical techniques and is considered one of the greatest statisticians in history.
Fisher, a co-founder of the Eugenics Society, integrated eugenics into his work, including early descriptions of evolutionary biology concepts.
Fisher's book, "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection," includes chapters on eugenics, which are often overlooked despite their significance.
Fisher's initial intention with the book was to focus on genetics, with eugenics chapters added later, indicating his strong interest in the subject.
Fisher's legacy has been reevaluated in recent years, leading to the removal of his name from awards and lectures due to his association with eugenics and controversial figures.
Fisher's interactions with Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, a Nazi scientist, have raised questions about his judgment and ethics, particularly regarding his support for eugenics.
Fisher's frustration with his inability to influence eugenics policies led to his focus on scientific research, overshadowing his views on eugenics.
Fisher's removal from campuses worldwide due to his eugenics beliefs is seen as ironic, as he is criticized for the wrong reasons, such as smoking a pipe during a time when the harmful effects of smoking were becoming widely known.

43:19

Fisher's Controversial Stance on Smoking and Cancer

Fisher strongly opposed the idea that smoking causes cancer, using data from articles published between 1956 and 1958, including two in Nature and one review article.
Fisher's data, which he used to resist the notion that smoking causes cancer, was criticized for being substandard and not based on good science.
Ronald Fisher, a renowned statistician, vehemently opposed the idea that smoking causes cancer, despite overwhelming evidence.
Fisher's opposition to the link between smoking and cancer may have been influenced by his dislike of authority figures, political views, and animosity towards public health interventions.
Fisher's stance against the smoking-cancer link was exploited by the tobacco industry, who used his alternative theory to sow seeds of doubt about the established scientific consensus.
Fisher's alternative theory suggested that cancer causes smoking, based on a genetic predisposition to lung cancer and the idea that smoking alleviates an itch in the lungs.
Robert Proctor estimated that cigarettes are the most lethal objects ever invented, with a smoking rate equivalent to the International Space Station's speed.
Fisher's impact on eugenics was minimal, but his involvement in promoting doubt about smoking causing cancer had significant negative consequences.
Eugenics, a popular idea in the Edwardian era, involved ranking people based on biological means to improve society, leading to negative eugenic selection targeting racialized groups, disabled individuals, and others.
Eugenics was embraced by both left-wing and right-wing thinkers, including prominent figures like Virginia Woolf, George Bernard Shaw, and Winston Churchill, who proposed legislation based on eugenic principles.

57:36

Early Eugenics: Churchill, Roosevelt, and Sterilization

In 1912, Churchill proposed involuntary sterilization in the Mental Deficiencies Act, but it was removed due to MP Josiah Wedgwood's efforts.
America embraced eugenics earlier and more enthusiastically than the UK, with prominent figures like Teddy Roosevelt advocating for the removal of "undesirables."
The Eugenics Records Office, funded by wealthy philanthropists like Mary Harriman and John Rockefeller, promoted eugenics and collected family pedigrees.
The office organized eugenics competitions at state fairs, normalizing the idea of breeding humans for improvement.
America saw between 70,000 to half a million involuntary sterilizations under eugenics laws, with 31 states having such laws until 1986.
Gregor Mendel's work on pea plants in the 1850s laid the foundation for genetics, demonstrating predictable inheritance patterns.
Charles Davenport, influenced by Mendel's work, believed in single-gene inheritance for all human characteristics, like eye and hair color.
Davenport's oversimplified views on genetics, like eye color being determined by a single gene, have been proven inaccurate by modern research.
Davenport's work on ginger hair inheritance and other traits aimed to justify eugenics practices by breeding out undesirable traits.
Recent studies suggest that teaching Mendelian genetics first can lead to a racialized and simplified view of genetics, highlighting the need for updated education on the complexity of genetic inheritance.

01:11:40

Eugenics Misconceptions: From Mendel to Holocaust

Mendel's original paper highlighted that characteristics in plants were controlled and not wild type, cautioning against applying these ideas to humans due to their complexity.
The eugenicist view that all traits are determined by single genes has been embraced for a century, leading to misconceptions taught to school children.
The concept of monogenic deterministic thinking has been deeply ingrained in society, dating back to ancient times and persisting through modern press headlines.
Examples of sensationalized gene discoveries in the media, such as predicting the time of death or political beliefs, highlight the misinterpretation of complex human traits.
The Kallikak family study, a foundational myth of American eugenics, traced back to a fraudulent story of a Revolutionary War hero's progeny, perpetuating stereotypes and misconceptions.
The Eugenics International Conference in 1912 marked a pivotal moment in the history of eugenics, with influential figures like Darwin and Balfour promoting these ideas.
Reginald Punnett's contradictory stance on eugenic intervention based on feeblemindedness showcases the conflicting views within the genetics community at the time.
Critiques from geneticists like Pearson and Morgan highlighted the limitations of monogenic deterministic thinking, emphasizing the social and cultural aspects of inherited conditions.
The rise of eugenic and race hygiene ideas in Nazi Germany, influenced by American eugenics, led to policies that culminated in the Holocaust.
Haldane's critique of eugenic policies in his book "Heredity and Politics" discredited the scientific justifications for such extreme measures, highlighting the devastating consequences of these ideologies.

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